What kind of element is ž e in Czech ?

This paper examines and compares the syntactic and semantic behaviour of the morpheme že 'that' in subordinate and independent clauses in Czech. I show that že does not have exactly the same properties in these two contexts. In embedded contexts, že combines with a declarative clause (proposition) and obligatorily marks its syntactic dependence. In independent contexts, že appears in interrogative clauses or in declarative clauses associated with exclamation, and it triggers a particular (echo or tag) interpretation. However, in all contexts, že seems to indicate a discrepancy between the speaker's and someone else commitment to a same proposition. As for the syntactic analysis, I propose that že in embedded clauses is a complementizer generated in the head Force, while in independent clauses, že is a focus particle generated in the head Focus and moving to the head Force at Logical Form. 1. Basic data The morpheme že typically introduces a subordinate complement or subject clause, as shown in (1). These clauses are subordinate since they are selected by the predicate of a matrix clause, on which they depend. (1) a. Všechny ženy pozůstalé po politických vězních říkají, že mají all wives Nom left PlFem after political prisoners say 3Pl that have 3Pl hezký život a hodné děti. Že jejich děti vycítily ten nice life and nice children that their children Nom felt 3Pl this zápas o pravdu a mají úctu ke svým rodičům. (ČNK 1) struggle Acc for truth and have 3Pl respect Acc to their Refl parents 'All widows of political prisoners say that they have a nice life and nice children. That their chidren understood their struggle for truth and have respect for their parents.' b. Že nepřišel na ten pohovor je zcela nepochopitelné. that NEG-came 3Sg to this meeting is completely incomprehensible 'That he did not come to this meeting is completely out of senses.' 1 These examples are taken from Czech National Corpus (ČNK), subcorpus Syn2000.